5
March 1824 – 24 February 1826) was the first of three wars fought
between the British and Burmese empires in the 19th
century. The war, which began primarily over the control of Northeastern
India, ended in a decisive British victory, giving the British total control
of Assam, Manipur, Cachar and Jaintiaas well as Arakan
Province and Tenasserim. The Burmese were also forced to pay an
indemnity of one million pounds sterling, and sign a commercial treaty.
Fifteen
thousand European and Indian soldiers died, together with an unknown number of
Burmese military and civilian casualties. The high cost of the campaign to the
British, 5–13 million pounds sterling (£375 million-£976 million as
of 2016 contributed to a severe economic crisis in British India which cost
the East India Company its remaining privileges.
For the
Burmese Empire, it was the beginning of the end of their independence. The
Third Burmese Empire, for a brief time the terror of British India, was
crippled and no longer a threat to the eastern frontier of British India. The
Burmese would be crushed for years to come by repaying the large indemnity of
one million pounds (then US$5 million), a large sum at that time. The
British would wage two more wars against a much-weakened Burma, and swallow up
the entire country by 1885.
Causes
By 1822,
Burmese expansion into Manipur and Assam had created a long border between British India and the Burmese Empire. The British, based in Calcutta, supported rebels from
Manipur, Assam and Arakan fleeing into British territory.
Calcutta unilaterally declared Cachar and Jaintia
British protectorates, and sent in troops. Cross border raids into these newly
acquired territories from British territories and spheres of influence vexed
the Burmese. Convinced that war was inevitable, Burmese commander-in-chief, Maha Bandula, became a main proponent
of offensive policy against the British. Bandula was part of the war party at
Bagyidaw's court, which also included Queen Me
Nu and her brother, the Lord of
Salin. Bandula believed that
a decisive victory could allow Ava to consolidate its gains in its new western
empire in Arakan, Manipur, Assam, Cachar and Jaintia, as well as take over
eastern Bengal.
In
September 1823, the casus
belli was Burma occupying
Shalpuri Island near Chittagong,
which was claimed by the East India Company.[7]
In January
1824, Burma sent one of their top generals, Thado
Thiri Maha Uzana, into Cachar and Jaintia to disperse the rebels. The British
sent in their own force to meet the Burmese in Cachar, resulting in the first
clashes between the two. The war formally broke out on 5 March 1824, following
border clashes in Arakan.
The
British reason for the war was, in addition to expanding British Bengal's
sphere of influence, the desire for new markets for British manufacturing. The British were also anxious to deny the
French the use of Burmese harbours and concerned about French influence at the Court of Ava,
as the kingdom was still known to them. British
Ambassador Michael Symes's
mission was equipped to
gain as
much knowledge as possible of the country for future British plans whereas
previous envoys were concerned principally with trade concessions. Anglo–French
rivalry had already played a role during Alaungpaya's endeavours of unifying
the kingdom. The Burmese in these wars
were advancing into smaller states not ruled by the British or the subject of
expansionary goals by the British before the war began, and the British were
not so much preoccupied by the refugee problem initially as by the threat posed
by the French until further incidents forced their hand.
War
Western Theatre
The commander in chief of the Burmese army, Maha Bandula, was supported by twelve
of the country's best divisions, including one under his personal command, all
totaling 10,000 men and 500 horses. His general staff included some of the
country's most decorated soldiers, men like the Lord of Salay and the governors
of Danyawaddy, Wuntho and Taungoo. Bandula's plan was to attack the British on
two fronts:Chittagong from Arakan
in the southeast, and Sylhet from Cachar and Jaintia in the north. Bandula personally commanded the
Arakan theatre while Uzana commanded Cachar and Jaintia theater.
Early in
the war, battle hardened Burmese forces were able to push back the British
forces because the Burmese, who had been fighting in the jungles of Manipur and
Assam for nearly a decade, were more familiar with the terrain which
represented "a formidable obstacle to the march of a European force".
Uzana had already defeated the British units in Cachar and Jaintia in January
1824. In May, Burmese forces led by U Sa, Lord Myawaddy (about 4,000) fought their way into Bengal, and defeated
British troops at the Battle of
Ramu, 10 miles east of Cox's
Bazar on 17 May 1824 Sa's column then joined Bandula's column on
the march to defeat British forces at Gadawpalin, and went on to capture Cox's
Bazar. The Burmese success caused extreme panic in Chittagong and in Calcutta. Across the eastern Bengal, the
European inhabitants formed themselves into militia forces. And a large portion
of the crews of the East India Company's ships were landed to assist in the
defence of Calcutta.
But Bandula,
not wanting to overstretch, stopped U Sa from proceeding to Chittagong. Had
Bandula marched on to Chittagong, which unbeknown to him was lightly held, he
could have taken it and the way to Calcutta would have been open. Had they been
able to threaten Calcutta, the Burmese could have obtained more favourable
terms in the peace negotiations later on.
Battle of Yangon (May–December 1824)
Instead of
fighting in hard terrain, the British took the fight to the Burmese mainland.
On 11 May 1824, a British naval force of over 10,000 men (5,000 British
soldiers and over 5,000 Indian sepoys) entered the harbour of Yangon, taking
the Burmese by surprise. The Burmese, pursuing a scorched earth policy, left an
empty city behind and chose to fortify positions along an east-west 10-mile arc
outside the city. The British forces led by General Archibald
Campbell took position inside a fortified Shwedagon
Pagoda compound. The British launched attacks on Burmese lines,
and by July 1824, had successfully pushed the Burmese towards Kamayut, five miles from Shwedagon. Burmese efforts to retake
Shwedagon in September failed.
King
Bagyidaw ordered a near complete withdrawal from the western front—Bandula from
Arakan and Bengal, and Uzana from Assam, Cachar and Jaintia—and meet the enemy
in Yangon. In August, in the midst of monsoon season, Bandula and his army
crossed the Arakan Yoma. Moving
tens of thousands of men over the 3,000-foot-high Arakan hills, or
10,000-foot-high Assamese ranges, heavily forested with only narrow footpaths
and open to attack by tigers and leopards, would be difficult even in mild
weather conditions. To do this at the height of the drenching monsoon season
was a particularly difficult task. Yet Bandula (from Arakan) and Uzana (from
Assam) in a testament to their generalship and logistical skills, managed to do
just that. The King granted both Bandula and Uzana the title Agga Maha Thenapati, the
highest possible military rank. Bandula was also made the governor of Sittaung.
By
November, Bandula commanded a force of 30,000 massed outside Yangon. Bandula
believed that he could take on a well-armed British force of 10,000 head-on.
Although the Burmese were numerically superior, only 15,000 of the 30,000 had
muskets. The Burmese cannons fired only balls whereas the British cannons fired
exploding shells. Unbeknown to
him, the British had just received the first shipment of the newest weapon in
war that the Burmese had never seen—Congreve
rockets. More ominous for the Burmese, the
speedy march through the hilly regions of Rakhine Yoma and Assamese ranges had
left their troops exhausted.
On 30
November, in what turned out be the biggest mistake of his career, Bandula
ordered a frontal attack on British positions. The British, with far superior
weaponry, withstood several Burmese charges at the Shwedagon fort, cutting down
men by the thousands. By 7 December, the British troops, supported by rocket
fire, had begun to gain the upper hand. On 15 December, the Burmese were driven
out of their last remaining stronghold at Kokine. In the end, only 7,000 of the 30,000
Burmese soldiers returned.
Battle of Danubyu (March–April 1825)
Bandula
fell back to his rear base at Danubyu, a small town not far
from Yangon, in the Irrawaddy delta. Having lost
experienced men in Yangon, the Burmese forces now numbered about 10,000, of
mixed quality, including some of the king's best soldiers but also many
untrained and barely armed conscripts. The stockade itself stretched a mile
along the riverbank, and was made up of solid teak beams no less than 15 feet
high.
In March
1825, a four thousand strong British force supported by a flotilla of gun boats
attacked Danubyu. The first British attack failed, and Bandula attempted a
counter charge, with foot soldiers, cavalry and 17 fighting elephants. But the
elephants were stopped by rocket fire and the cavalry found it impossible to
move against the sustained British artillery fire.
On 1
April, the British launched a major attack, pounding down on the town with
their heavy guns and raining their rockets on every part of the Burmese line.
Bandula was killed by a mortar shell. Bandula had walked around the fort to
boost the morale of his men, in his full insignia under a glittering golden
umbrella, discarding the warnings of his generals that he would prove an easy
target for the enemy's guns. After Bandula's death, the Burmese evacuated
Danubyu.
Arakan campaign (February–April 1825)
U Sa was
left to command the remaining Burmese troops in Arakan after Bandula and the
main battalions were ordered to withdraw from Arakan by Bagyidaw to meet the British
invasion in Yangon in August
1824. Sa held on to Arakan throughout 1824 while the main focal point of the
war played out in Yangon. After Gen. Archibald Campbell finally
defeated Gen. Bandula in the Battle of Yangon in December
1824, the British turned their sights to Arakan. On 1 February 1825, an
invasion force of 11,000 soldiers supported by a flotilla of gun boats and
armed cruisers along the coast and a squadron of cavalry under the command of
Gen. Morrison attacked Burmese positions in Arakan. Despite their superior
numbers and firearms, the British had to fight depleted Burmese forces for
nearly two months before they reached the main Burmese garrison at Mrauk-U, Arakan's capital. On 29 March 1825, the
British launched their attack on Mrauk-U. (At the same time, Campbell also
launched an attack on Bandula's positions in the Battle of Danubyu.) After a few days of fighting, the
Burmese at Mrauk-U were defeated on April 1, coincidentally the same day Maha
Bandula fell at Danubyu. Sa and the remaining Burmese forces evacuated and left
Arakan. The British proceeded to occupy the rest of Arakan.
Armistice
On 17
September 1825, an armistice was
concluded for one month. In the course of the summer, General Joseph
Wanton Morrison had conquered the
province of Arakan; in the north, the Burmese were expelled from Assam; and the
British had made some progress in Cachar, though their advance was finally
impeded by the thick forests and jungle.
Peace
negotiations that began in September broke down by early October after
the Burmese would not agree to British terms. The British had demanded no less
than the complete dismemberment of the Burmese western territories in Arakan, Assam, Manipur and the Tenasserim coast as well as two million pounds sterling of
indemnity. The Burmese would not agree to give up Arakan and the large sum of
indemnity.
Battle of Prome (November–December 1825)
In
November 1825, the Burmese decided to throw everything they had into last-ditch
effort. Starting in mid-November, the Burmese forces, consisting mainly of Shan regiments led by their sawbwas, threatened Prome in
a daring circular movement that almost surrounded the town and cut off
communications lines to Yangon. In the end, the superior firepower of the
British guns and missiles won out. On 1 December, Gen. Campbell, with 2500
European and 1500 Indian sepoys, supported by a flotilla of gun boats, attacked
the main Burmese position outside Prome. On 2 December, Maha Ne Myo was killed
by a shell launched from the flotilla. After Maha Ne Myo's death, the British
dislodged the Burmese by 5 December.
The defeat
in Prome effectively left the Burmese army in disarray. The Burmese army was in
constant retreat from then on. On 26 December, they sent a flag of truce to the
British camp. Negotiations having commenced, the Burmese were forced to accept
the British terms to end the war, signing the Treaty of Yandabo in
February 1826.
Treaty of Yandabo
The
British demanded and the Burmese agreed to:-
Cede to the British Assam, Manipur, Rakhine (Arakan), and Taninthayi (Tenasserim) coast south of the Salween River
Cease all interference in Cachar and Jaintia
Pay an indemnity of one million pounds sterling in four installments
Allow for an exchange of diplomatic representatives between Ava
and Calcutta
Sign a commercial treaty in due course
The first
installment of indemnity was to be paid immediately, the second installment
within the first 100 days from signing of the treaty, and the rest within two
years. Until the second installment was paid, the British would not leave
Yangon.
The Treaty
of Yandabo was signed by General Campbell from the British side and Governor of
Legaing Maha Min Hla Kyaw Htin from the
Burmese side on 24 February 1826. The
Burmese paid 250,000 pounds sterling in gold and silver bullion as the first
installment of the indemnity, and also released British prisoners of war. The
war was thus brought to an end, and the British army moved south. The British
army remained in the territories surrendered to it under the treaty and in the
territories such as the Rangoon area which were occupied for several years in
guarantee of the financial terms of the treaty.
After war
The treaty
imposed a severe financial burden to the Burmese Kingdom, and effectively left
it crippled. The British terms in the negotiations were strongly influenced by
the heavy cost in lives and money which the war had entailed. Some 40,000
British and Indians troops had been involved of whom 15,000 had been killed.
The cost to the British India's finances had been almost ruinous, amounting to
approximately 13 million pounds sterling. The cost of war contributed to a
severe economic crisis in India, which by 1833 had bankrupted the Bengal agency
houses and cost the British East India Company its remaining privileges,
including the monopoly of trade to China.
For the
Burmese, the treaty was a total humiliation and a long-lasting financial
burden. A whole generation of men had been wiped out in battle. The world the
Burmese knew, of conquest and martial pride, built on the back of impressive
military success of the previous 75 years, had come crashing down. The Court of
Ava could not come to terms with the loss of the territories, and made
unsuccessful attempts to get them back. An uninvited British resident in Ava
was a daily reminder of the humiliating defeat.
In
addition, the burden of indemnity left the Burmese royal treasury bankrupt for
years. The indemnity of one million pounds sterling was considered a large sum
in Europe at that time. It appeared more daunting when converted to the Burmese
kyat equivalent of 10 million. The cost of living of the
average villager in Upper Burma in 1826 was one kyat per month.
The
British would wage two more less expensive wars against the weaker Burmese in
1852 and 1885, and annex Burma by 1885.
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